Documents
- The way we were. The first Congress of
Italian Physical Society
(SIF) after the second world war. Como, 5-7 November 1947.
For a brief history of
SIF see here
- In 1965 the Gruppo Nazionale di Struttura della Materia
(GNSM - National Group of Structure of Matter) was founded. It was a time of unequal development of physics branches and, generally speaking, of scientific disciplines (see, for instance, Physics of matter in Italy: 1945-1965 and La nascita della fisica della materia: 1945-1965). The scholars of the physics of matter began to publish a "Notiziario" in order to "diffuse information and comments on the advances of a physics branch that has been rapidly developing in the last years, the physics of
aggregate states of matter: atoms, molecules, solid state, liquid state". Nine issues have been published: GoTo.
- Several interviews have been conducted. Here are extended abstracts of them. Here are some audio samples. Luigi Giulotto (1911-1986) on his birth and parents; Giulotto on the first NMR signal. Piero Caldirola (1914-1984) on his birth and parents; Caldirola on the Hydrogen Ha line. Giorgio Careri (1922- 2008) on his youth; Careri on the mass spectrometer; Giuseppe Lanzi (1921) memories of war.
- After Fermi departed for the United States (1938), his heritage
has been taken up by Edoardo Amaldi (1908-1989). After the second world war, in the context of the general weakness of scientific structures and increasing interest in nuclear research applications, Amaldi was able to embed the research on elementary particles into the stream of applied nuclear research. The outcome was an unequal development of the various branches of Physics and of Physics among the other experimental disciplines. The creation of the
INFN (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare - National Institute of Nuclear Physics) in 1951 and its subsequent independent financial support assured by law (1971) constituted, for its structure, its autonomy and its budget, a privileged exception in the horizon of Italian research.
Starting from the sixties, Luigi Giulotto (1911-1986) began, among others, a long-lasting cultural and political battle aimed at an equilibrated development of physical
research: the Physics of Matter, whose technological outcome was of strategic relevance, was severely underdeveloped. However, Giulotto's commitment, though based on correct analysis and sustained, eventually, by ambitious goals - to obtain what will be later called
INFM (National Institute for the Physics of Matter) - has been hampered by tactical errors and resentful polemics. The path has been difficult: the
INFM was founded only in 1994.
Here two essays by Giulotto with a preface by Antonio Casella.
- An organization similar to
INFN and
INFM has been recently (2001) acquired also by astrophysicists through the foundation of the
INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica - National Institute of Astrophysics).
In 2003 the government of Mr. Berlusconi, disregarding the historical development and its lessons (and without any wariness about the fate of a young research structure and its impact on a strategic research field), has inserted the INFM into the restructured
CNR (National Council of Research), leaving outside the other two National Institutes
(INFN, INAF): see (in particular, article 23).
- As said above, the process that ended in the foundation of
INFM was complex. In the fifties, several small groups of physicists working on the physics of matter have been financed by
INFN; at the end of the fifties, a Commission for the Structure of Matter of the
INFN was formed. Of course, the amount of money given to these groups was an insignificant fraction of
INFN budget. Giulotto too asked for the constitution of a research sub-unit in Pavia: see. Only later, Giulotto began his battle against the "privileges" of
INFN.
- Among the first steps taken by Giulotto, we must recall a letter sent to the Minister of Industry and other personalities, about the physics research in Italy. This letter contains many of the themes of Giulotto's campaign: in particular the proposal of the foundation of a National Institute similar to the
INFN for the physics of matter or, alternatively, the transformation of the
INFN into a National Istitute of Physics. Later, Giulotto entered a debate promoted by an Italian magazine with a letter addressed to several Institutions (1966). On the same day, Giulotto sent another letter to the same Institutions on a possible government decree concerning the
INFN. This decree was approved on July 26, 1967: it endowed the
INFN with autonomy and direct financial support from the government. On September 2, 1967, Giulotto wrote again about this decree; the answer of the Minister of "Pubblica Istruzione", Luigi Gui, was not a formal one. Giulotto next step was an open letter to the deputies, followed by a request of information about the
INFN: 1, 2. The letter to the deputies fired a violent polemics at a meeting of the Italian Physical Society (Bollettino della Società Italiana di Fisica, n. 66, 9-17, 1969): a Giulotto's statement ("...the chiefs of this association [INFN]...have been in a condition of strengthening their dominance over Italian research by assuring research and personal grants to their friends, and by the control of numerous competitions for University chairs...") gave rise to a violent reaction characterized by heavy personal attacks, while the substantial points of Giulotto's position were largely neglected. Angelo Loinger, with his stinging style, remarked this point (Bollettino della Società Italiana di Fisica, n. 67, 15, 1969).
- In his campaign, Giulotto addressed all political parties. As an example, let us see some correspondence of Giulotto, certainly a moderate, with representatives of the Communist party. Here Umberto Terracini, then President of the group of the Communist Senators, discusses Giulotto's position on the state of the Italian research; Giulotto's comment. The correspondence with Giorgio Piovano, then a Senator from Pavia, is interesting. Piovano, intrigued by Giulotto's letter to the
deputies, asks for a talk (December 5, 1968). On January, 11, 1969, Piovano sends to Giulotto a draft of a question about the
INFN to be addressed to the Government; Giulotto approves enthusiastically. On March, 1, 1969, in sending the response on a query concerning the
ICTP of Trieste, Piovano says "I haven't yet received an answer to my query about the
INFN. However, I have been pressed from many sides and reproached as if I have made an enormity"; Giulotto's comment. Generally speaking, the response of the parties assured a formal interest; only the Communist party response was based on a party's stand on the subject.
- About 1975, Giulotto's tactic changed: from an almost solitary campaign to a coordinated action aiming at definite goals. On February 13, 1975, Giulotto participated in a hearing of the VII Commission of Italian Senate named " Inquiry into scientific research in Italy". By then, the issues stressed by Giulotto many years before had become
the subject of a wide debate, not only among physicists of matter. In 1976 Giulotto in charge by
GNSM prepared a document entitled "Sulla struttura degli enti di ricerca nel campo della fisica - Disfunzioni e nodi politici" (On the structure of research institutes in the physics field - Malfunctions and political knots).
- In December 1977, 197 researchers signed a document asking for the foundation of an "Istituto Nazionale di Struttura della Materia" (National Institute of the Structure of Matter). However, in the list of subscribers relevant names and research units were missing. For instance, the Genova
research unit wrote: "...we are worried about the possibility of a complete separation of University research from CNR...which has, among its institutional tasks, that of acting as go-between towards applications. This possibility of encouraging a better coexistence between fundamental research and applications will be missing in the new Institute, as it is, in fact, in the
INFN...". These discussions about Italian research and its organization must be viewed in the context of a wider debate concerning
the University reform. This is well exemplified in an article by Carlo Schaerf appeared in November 1978. At that time, the debate about the University reform was more than 10 years old, since it started in 1967 with the proposal of law number 2314 by the then Minister of "Pubblica Istruzione" Luigi Gui and flared up during the students' movement of 1968.
- On January 26, 1978, the Physics Committee of CNR took an interesting position on the "197's document". The Committee acknowledges that " the problem raised...is real and deserves attention. In particular [the Committee] acknowledges the relevance that a vital branch of physics, with interesting connections with problems of industrial innovation, could strengthen its action of coordination and national planning ...It is also evident that the present structure of GNSM
as a National Group of
CNR does not allow funding adequate to the research needs and, above all, does not guarantee the continuity that is necessary for the development of quinquennium plans nor allows taking quick and efficient decisions that are required by application problems. As for the suggested solutions, the Committee cannot take a position. ...However, the Committee holds that there should be a panel that compares and affects programs and funding of the various branches of a discipline."
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